Yildiz, S., Kutlu, D., & Yildiz, R.

 The effect of Nomophobia on Cyberloafing among employees in tourism enterprises.

Received: 10/12/2022        Accepted: 03/02/2023        Published: 13/04/2023

RESERACH

 

THE EFFECT OF NOMOPHOBIA ON CYBERLOAFING AMONG EMPLOYEES IN TOURISM ENTERPRISES

El efecto de la Nomofobia en el Ciberloafing entre los empleados de las empresas turísticas

descargaSevcan Yildiz[1]: Akdeniz University. Turkiye. 

sevcanyildiz@gmail.com  

descargaDidem Kutlu [2]: Akdeniz University. Turkiye.

didemkutlu@akdeniz.edu.tr 

descargaRaşit Yildiz[3]: Akdeniz University. Turkiye. 

rasityildiz@akdeniz.edu.tr  

 

How to reference this article:

Yildiz, S., Kutlu, D., & Yildiz, R. (2023). The effect of Nomophobia on Cyberloafing among employees in tourism enterprises. Vivat Academia, 156, 173-198. http://doi.org/10.15178/va.2023.156.e1465

ABSTRACT 

Due to the dynamic nature of tourism, it is essential to follow and adopt the developing technology both to meet the changing demand structure and to facilitate the internal operation of the business. However, while technology has a positive effect on organizations in terms of travel, tourist flow and management, the employees’ internet access for non-work purposes during work time causes the development of cyberloafing and nomophobia behavior. Since information and communication technologies are used in every field of the tourism sector, it is thought that it will be important to examine the relationship between cyberloafing and nomophobia, specifically on the employees in the tourism sector. The main aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between nomophobia and cyberloafing among hotel employees. The research was conducted with a total of 300 employees in accommodation sector in Antalya, Turkey. According to the results of the study, it can be said that the nomophobic and cyberloafing levels of the hotel employees are moderate. The results revealed that nomophobia explained 34.2% of the variance in cyberloafing. The managerial implications are discussed based on the study results, and directions for future research are provided.

Keywords: Tourism businesses, technology, smartphone addiction, cyberloafing, nomophobia.

RESUMEN 

Debido a la naturaleza dinámica del turismo, es esencial seguir y adoptar la tecnología en desarrollo tanto para satisfacer la estructura de demanda cambiante como para facilitar la operación interna del negocio. Sin embargo, si bien la tecnología tiene un efecto positivo en las organizaciones en términos de viajes, flujo de turistas y gestión, el acceso a Internet de los empleados para fines no laborales durante el tiempo de trabajo provoca el desarrollo de conductas de cyberloafing y nomofobia. Dado que las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación se utilizan en todos los campos del sector turístico, se cree que será importante examinar la relación entre el cyberloafing y la nomofobia, específicamente en los empleados del sector turístico. El objetivo principal de este estudio fue investigar la relación entre la nomofobia y el cyberloafing entre los empleados del hotel. La investigación se llevó a cabo con un total de 300 empleados en el sector del alojamiento en Antalya, Turquía. Según los resultados del estudio, se puede decir que los niveles de nomofobia y cyberloafing de los empleados del hotel son moderados. Los resultados revelaron que la nomofobia explicaba el 34,2 % de la varianza en el cyberloafing. Las implicaciones gerenciales se discuten en base a los resultados del estudio y se proporcionan direcciones para futuras investigaciones. 

Palabras clave: Empresas turísticas, tecnología, adicción a los smartphones, cyberloafing, nomofobia. 

O efeito da Nomofobia no cyberloafing entre funcionários de empresas de turismo

RESUMO

Devido à natureza dinâmica do turismo, é essencial acompanhar e adotar tecnologias em desenvolvimento, tanto para atender às mudanças na estrutura da demanda quanto para facilitar a operação interna do negócio. No entanto, embora a tecnologia tenha um efeito positivo nas organizações em termos de viagens, fluxo turístico e gestão, o acesso à Internet por funcionários para fins não relacionados ao trabalho durante o horário de trabalho leva ao desenvolvimento de comportamentos de cyberloafing e nomofobia. Uma vez que as tecnologias de informação e comunicação são utilizadas em todos os domínios do setor do turismo, acredita-se que será importante examinar a relação entre cyberloafing e nomofobia, especificamente nos trabalhadores do setor do turismo. O principal objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a relação entre nomofobia e cyberloafing entre funcionários de hotéis. A pesquisa foi realizada com um total de 300 funcionários do setor de hospedagem em Antalya, Turquia. De acordo com os resultados do estudo, pode-se dizer que os níveis de nomofobia e cyberloafing dos funcionários do hotel são moderados. Os resultados revelaram que a nomofobia explicou 34,2% da variância no cyberloafing. As implicações gerenciais são discutidas com base nos resultados do estudo e são fornecidas direções para pesquisas futuras.

Palabras chave: Empresas de turismo, tecnologia, dependência de smartphones, cyberloafing, nomofobia. 

1.      INTRODUCTION 

Technology has undergone a rapid change within the scope of mobile technologies, and the spread of mobile technologies, especially smart phones and mobile internet, has been increased drastically. Due to the ease of accessing internet regardless of time and place, mobile technologies have become an important part of the lives of individuals. According to the World Bank, 45.8% of the people in the world use the internet and 80% of the European population access the internet via their smartphones (Apak and Yaman 2019). 

As we live in technological world, using both smart devices and the internet has become more popular, and we integrate those in every part of our lives. Mobile technologies, which bring convenience to the lives of individuals, also raise potential problems. It has changed people's daily habits, as well as psychological and sociological behavior patterns. People have become accustomed to living in virtual reality and have started to live with smartphones and tablets instead of interacting with other people (Yaman and Kavuncu 2019). While the increase in the usage rate of smartphones makes life easier on the one hand, it also led to the emergence of negative behaviors such as addicted and restless behaviors (Gezgin and Şahin 2017). According to the studies, too much use of smartphones not only disrupts the finger structure, but also reveals negativities such as distraction, sleep disorder, fear, anxiety, fatigue, stress, alienation, and depression (Aşık 2018, p. 29). Along with problematic smartphone use, concepts such as smartphone addiction (Gökçearslan et al., 2018), nomophobia (Dixit et al., 2010), cyberbullying and cyberloafing have started to rise the research field. The term of nomophobia is an abbreviation of the expression for “no-mobile-phone-phobia". Cyberloafing is defined as employees' use of ICT technologies, including devices such as laptops, desktop computers, and smartphones, and the Internet (provided by the organization) to access social media and other websites during working hours (Tandon et al., 2021). 

Although many studies have been carried out with nomophobia and cyberloafing separately, there are very few studies in the literature that measure the effect of nomophobia on cyberloafing. According to the results of a study measuring the effect of nomophobia on cyberloafing in undergraduate students, undergraduate students have moderate nomophobia and the level of cyberloafing is high (Masadeh 2021, p. 342). In another study measuring the cyberloafing levels of students studying in the Department of Computer and Instructional Technology Education in Turkey, all of the students admitted that they did cyberloafing in different semesters and courses. It has been observed that the level of cyberloafing is close to the average level and especially in the lessons, the students show the behaviors of sharing content and accessing online content (Gezgin and Sarsar 2020, p. 243). Since the learning environment and the working environment are different from each other, the levels of cyberloafing of students and employees differ. Classroom and work environments are differentiated in terms of employee and student rights, economic situation (eg cyberloafing in the form of shopping), mode of communication, daily schedule, monitoring and atmosphere (Gökçearslan et al., 2018; Akbulut et al., 2017). When the studies in the literature were evaluated, it was seen that the studies mostly focused on high school and university students and a limited number of studies examine the relationship between nomophobia and cyberloafing (Masadeh 2021; Tandon et al., 2021). Therefore, one of the contributions to the literature of this empirical study is to analyze the relationship of cyberloafing and nomophobia in different environment such as accommodation enterprises. Another contribution of this research is that it aims to present new empirical evidence to the tourism literature. Selecting the accommodation enterprises will also make the results of the study important for tourism policy makers. 

1.1.  Cyberloafing

The concept of cyberloafing means the use of the internet network provided to the staff by the organizations within the scope of the individual purposes of the staff (Lim 2002; Afacan Fındıklı 2016, p. 37). Cyberloafing behavior causes negativities in terms of business and employee. While the employee is faced with unfavourableness such as not being able to complete his/her job, wasting his time, and decreasing motivation, the organization experiences negativities such as material and moral losses, legal sanctions, and the concentration of the internet network (Ünal 2015, p. 96). 

While some of the studies emphasize that cyberloafing has negative effects on organizations in terms of productivity, legal compliance, and information security (Henle et al., 2009; Wagner et al., 2012), others suggest that it has positive effects such as improving creativity and eliminating work stress. (Lim and Chen 2009; Robinson and Bennett 1995). Cyberloafing allows the employee to get away from the work environment and refocus on his work (Anandarajan and Simmers 2005; Lim & Chen 2012). Cyberloafing is divided into four dimensions as personal growth, recovery, deviant and addiction. In terms of personal development dimension, cyberloafing behaviors are a potential source of learning and are defined as a behavior that shows positive developments for the employee and the employer. Recovery refers to the benefits it provides to the health and motivation status of the employee, increases the peace of the employee in the organization and reduces the discomfort situation. Deviance, on the other hand, causes a decrease in productivity in the organization and consists of behaviors that create negative results in the organization. Addictions are behaviors that cause problems because they are behaviors that have turned into habits. The main reason for addictions arises as a reaction to dissatisfaction or distress (Özkalp and Yıldız 2018, p. 61).

In a study, it was determined that as the education level of the employees increases, insignificant cyberloafing activities increase, and that those who work at the upper levels engage in more serious cyberloafing activities than those who work at the lower levels (Kaplan and Çetinkaya 2014). The reason executives are more prone to cyberloafing is because people in these positions have more stressful jobs and are more likely to use the internet to distract their minds off their work (Ugrin et al., 2007).

1.2.  Nomophobia

Nomophobia is a type of phobia defined as the state of being uncomfortable or worried in the absence of a mobile phone, personal computer, or other virtual communication device (Yıldız et al., 2020; Adnan and Gezgin 2016; King et al., 2010). People having nomophobia can be identified by certain characteristics such as ‘checking for continuous messages or calls’, ‘experiencing anxiety and stress outside of the coverage area or in places where phone use is limited’, ‘never switching off the phone’ and ‘going to bed with a smartphone’. In some severe cases, when the phone is disconnected or otherwise unusable, nomophobics may face physical side effects such as 'panic attacks', 'shortness of breath', 'shaking', 'sweating', 'accelerated heart rate', 'pain in the joints of the hands, pain in the neck and back' (Kaur et al., 2021; Erdem et al., 2016). Although nomophobia is more common among young people, people of all age groups are at risk. The fact that smartphones have too many features, ease of use and portable feature also lead to an increase in addiction. In addition, nomophobia is a psychological disease when viewed personally, but also closely concerns society when viewed sociologically.

There are very few studies in the literature that measure the effect of nomophobia on cyberloafing. According to the results of a study measuring the effect of nomophobia on cyberloafing in undergraduate students, undergraduate students have moderate nomophobia and the level of cyberloafing is high (Masadeh 2021, p. 342). In a study examining the relationship between distraction and nomophobia due to smartphone use in clinical practice of nursing students, a positive correlation was found between smartphone use and total score of nomophobia (Aguilera-Manrique et al., 2018). In another study measuring the cyberloafing levels of students studying in the Department of Computer and Instructional Technology Education in Turkey, all of the students admitted that they did cyberloafing in different semesters and courses. It has been observed that the level of cyberloafing is close to the average level and especially in the lessons, the students show the behaviors of sharing content and accessing online content (Gezgin and Sarsar 2020, p. 243). Gözüm et al., (2020) examined the relationship between pre-school teacher candidates' mobile learning (m-learning) readiness, cyberloafing, nomophobia and smartphone addiction variables. The result of the research is that the smartphones that pre-school teacher candidates use for both m-learning and cyberloafing in the classroom have an effect on nomophobia and smartphone addiction. According to the results of a study investigating the effect of nomophobia on employee engagement and interruption, emotional exhaustion and productivity, some nomophobic employees felt more productive, but some tended to feel emotionally exhausted and less productive. It was also found that nomophobia increased work interruption and workload perception of employees (Erdem et al., 2016; Hosgor et al., 2020). In previous studies, it was seen that university students with high nomophobia tend to use smartphones more than other students (Gökçearslan et al., 2018; Erdem et al., 2016). In order to reveal cyberloafing and nomophobia behaviors of employee in tourism enterprises and to examine the relationship between cyberloafing and nomophobia concepts, the following hypotheses have been established:

H1: Nomophobia has an effect on cyberloafing.

Although studies on nomophobia are generally focused on students, nomophobia also has serious effects on working environment. Physical and psychological disorders (distraction, stress, insomnia, pain in the hands and wrists, etc.) caused by nomophobia can lead to work accidents and negatively affect the performance and productivity of employees (Augner and Hacker 2012; Zarghami et al., 2015). Employees' spending too much time on their phones at work can damage their social relations with their colleagues and negatively affect people's organizational commitment and job satisfaction (Aşık, 2018). In studies examining the effects of nomophobia on business life, it has been determined that nomophobia leads to organizational consequences such as reducing job satisfaction and commitment to work, creating a perception of excess workload (Erdem et al., 2016), and exhibiting procrastination behavior (Hosgor et al., 2020; Aguilera-Manrique et al., 2018). Considering the effects of nomophobia on business life, it is important to determine the nomophobia levels of individuals and to determine which variables differ in their nomophobia levels. The following hypothesis has been proposed to determine individuals' nomophobia levels in terms of demographic variables:

H2: The levels of nomophobia differ according to demographic characteristics (gender, age, daily internet usage) of employees. 

Cyberloafing behavior in the workplace can create an internal threat in terms of productivity, financial losses, morale, organizational justice, and a potential source of liability (Piotrowski 2012). Therefore, it is important to understand the cyberloafing behaviors that occupy the employees in order to effectively manage the internet use of the employees in the workplace. The widespread use of computer and internet technologies especially in hotel businesses brings the possibility of employees using these technologies for their own purposes, surfing the internet and using social media tools (Kaplan and Çetinkaya 2014). In order to determine the cyberloafing levels of hotel employees in terms of demographic variables, the following hypothesis was proposed:

H3: The levels of cyberloafing differ according to demographic characteristics (gender, age, daily internet usage) of employees.

2.      OBJECTIVES 

When the studies in the literature were evaluated, it was seen that the studies mostly focused on high school and university students and a limited number of studies examine the relationship between nomophobia and cyberloafing (Masadeh 2021; Tandon et al., 2021). Therefore, one of the contributions to the literature of this empirical study is to analyze the relationship of cyberloafing and nomophobia in different environment such as accommodation enterprises. Another contribution of this research is that it aims to present new empirical evidence to the tourism literature. Selecting the accommodation enterprises will also make the results of the study important for tourism policy makers. 

3.      METHODOLOGY 

The quantitative approach was used to investigate the nomophobia levels and cyberloafing behaviors among employees in tourism enterprises in Antalya and the variables affecting these levels. The nomophobia scale consists of 'not being able to access information', 'not giving up convenience', 'not being able to communicate' and 'losing connectedness’ (Yıldırım and Correira 2015). For the cyberloafing scale, 5 dimensions including “sharing”, “shopping”, “real-time update”, “accessing online content”, “gaming/gambling” were used (Akbulut et al., 2017). Within the scope of this study, the questionnaire was translated from the source language (English) to the target language (Turkish) by a bilingual expert. After the corrections made by the experts in the field of instructional technology in the translated items, the authors of this study checked the items, and a pilot study was conducted with 35 participants to test the clarity and comprehensibility of the questions.

3.1.  Participants and Data Collection

Antalya province Belek tourism region hotel employees were determined as the target study universe. Convenience sampling method, which is a non-probability method and preferred because of the easy accessibility of the subjects (Gegez 2014, p. 217), was chosen as the sampling method. The data were collected in the winter and spring terms of 2021 and a questionnaire was applied to the employees working in 5-star hotels on a voluntary basis. Incomplete answers were removed from a total of 322 questionnaires and the analysis continued with 300 questionnaires. 

According to the Table 1, the majority respondents are male, at 26-35 age range, single, high school graduates.  According to daily internet use, most of the participants stated that they use the internet for 1-3 hours.

Table 1: Demographic characteristics of participants.

Demographic Characteristics

Frequency

%

Demographic Characteristics

Frequency

%

Gender

Male

167

55.7

Work experience

6 – 10 years

50

16.7

Female

133

44.3

11 – 15 years

34

11.3

Age

 ≤ 25

85

28.3

16 – 20 years

31

10.3

26 – 35

110

36.7

>21 years

28

9.3

36 – 45

55

18.3

Seniority

< 1 year

69

23.0

46 – 55

42

14.0

1 -3 years

105

35.0

56 ≥  

8

2.7

4 – 6 years

64

21.3

Marital Status

Single

155

51.7

7 – 9 years

41

13.7

Maried

145

48.3

>10 years

21

7.0

Education

Secondary School

57

19.0

Daily internet usage

I Never Wander

27

9.0

Highschool

119

39.7

< 1 hour

193

64.3

University

109

36.3

1 – 3 hours

68

22.7

Undergraduate

15

5.0

4 – 6 hours

10

3.3

Work experience

< 1 year

58

19.3

>7 hours

2

0.7

1 – 5 years

99

33.0

 

Total

300

100.0

Source: Own elaboration.

3.2.  Measurement

The nomophobia scale developed by Yıldırım and Correira (2015) which consists of four dimensions and twenty items: (1) not being able to communicate, (2) losing connectedness, (3) not being able to access information, and (4) giving up convenience. The cyberloafing scale was operationalized using five constructs (sharing, shopping, real time updating, accessing online content, gaming/gambling) adapted from (Akbulut et al., 2017) and thirty items. All the items were measured using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

3.3.  Data Analysis

The quantitative analysis program SPSS 20 was used to analyze the data obtained from the questionnaire. In order for the data obtained in quantitative studies to be accepted as scientifically correct or to be credible, their validity and reliability should be measured (Christensen et al., 2015, p. 154). In our study, explanatory factor analysis was used for the validity of the scales and Cronbach's Alpha for the reliability.

Table 2: Factor loadings and Cronbach Alpha values of nomophobia construct.

Construct/measurement items

Cronbach’s α

Factor loading

Eigenvalue

Explained variance

losing connectedness

I would be uncomfortable because I could not stay up-to-date with social media and online network

I would feel weird because I would not know what to do

I would feel awkward because I could not check my notifications for updates from my connections and online networks

I would feel anxious because I could not check my email messages

I would be nervous because I would be disconnected from my online identity.

.972

 

.952

 

.949

 

.945

 

 

.942

 

.931

5.172

25.85

not being able to communicate

I would be nervous because I could not know if someone had tried to get a hold of me

I would be worried because my family and/or friends could not reach me

I would feel nervous because I would not be able to receive text messages and calls

I would feel anxious because my constant connection to my family and friends would be broken

I would be anxious because I could not keep in touch with my family and/or friends

I would feel anxious because I could not instantly communicate with my family and/or friends

.883

 

.854

 

.843

 

.839

 

.816

 

.709

.683

3.578

17.89

Not giving up convenience

If I were to run out of credits or hit my monthly data limit, I would panic

If I could not use my smartphone, I would be afraid of getting stranded somewhere

If I could not check my smartphone for a while, I would feel a desire to check it

If I did not have a data signal or could not connect to Wi-Fi, then I would constantly check to see if I had a signal or could find a Wi-Fi network

Running out of battery in my smartphone would scare me

.865

 

.846

 

.830

 

.794

 

.776

 

 

.771

3.070

15.35

not being able to access information

I would feel uncomfortable without constant access to information through my smartphone

I would be annoyed if I could not use my smartphone and/or its capabilities when I wanted to do so

I would be annoyed if I could not look information up on my smartphone whenever I want

Being unable to access the news (e.g., happenings, weather, etc.) on my smartphone would make me nervous

.795

 

.800

 

.791

 

.783

 

.756

2.428

12.14

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)=.828                  Bartlett sphericity test χ2 = 4437.235; p=.000

Note: % of total variance: %71.245

Source: Own elaboration.

The results showed an acceptable value of .828 on the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test. The fact that the p value obtained from the Bartlet sphericity test is less than .001 indicates that the analysis factor is appropriate. All the reported reliability coefficients exceed .70 (Table 2) which suggested acceptable internal consistency (Nunnally 1978). The Cronbach’s Alpha of nomophobia construct is between .795 and .972 which shows high reliability. The total variance explained by the 4 factors is 71.245%. According to Hair et al. (2006), factor solution that explains 60% (and in some cases even less) of the total variance is considered satisfactory in social science research. Measurement items adapted from existing studies have indicated that nomophobia has four constructs, namely not being able to access information, not giving up convenience, not being able to communicate and losing connectedness. In our study the result of EFA was confirmed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 3: Factor loadings and Cronbach Alpha values of cyberloafing construct.

Construct/measurement items

Cronbach’s α

Factor loading

Eigenvalue

Explained variance

Sharing

I review my friends' social networking pages

I comment on shared photos

I like the posts that interest me

 

I watch funny videos that are shared.

I text with my friends

I make status updates on social networks

I share content (text, photo, video, etc.) on social networks

I tag my friends in shared photos

I look at the content shared by my friends

.970

 

.915

.906

.901

.899

.893

.889

.888

 

0.885

0.829

8.072

26.90

Shopping

I review second-hand classifieds sites.

I look at job postings.

I visit auction sites (Gittigidiyor, e-bay etc.)

I perform banking transactions

I shop from shopping sites

I visit opportunity sites (Grupanya, Bonubon etc.)

I visit shopping sites.

.939

 

.872

.869

.861

.848

.848

.763

 

.659

6.671

22.23

accessing online content 

I download the apps I need

I listen to music online

I watch videos online

I download videos from the Internet

I download music from the Internet

.917

 

.876

.864

.856

.824

.739

3.422

11.40

real time updating

I tweet

I repost a tweet I liked (retweet)

I read tweets

I comment on trending topics

I add a tweet I like to my favorites

.858

 

.806

.804

.789

.785

.767

2.289

7.63

Gaming/gambling

I go online sports sites

I visit betting sites

I play online games

I bet

.850

 

.861

.822

.802

.778

1.948

6.49

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)=.902                  Bartlett sphericity test: χ2 = 8302.299; p=.000

Source: Own elaboration.

The results showed an acceptable value of .902 on the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test. The p value resulting from Bartlet’s sphericity test was lower than .001, which indicated that the analysis factor was appropriate. The scale explains 74.674% of the total variance. It can be said that the total variance ratio has an important value for the rule of at least 50% (Yaşlıoğlu 2017). It is seen that the scale consists of 5 sub-dimensions with an eigenvalue above 1. When the factor loadings of the scale items are examined in general, it can be said that they provide the rule (.65-.91)>0.35 (Tabachnick and Fidell 2013). The cronbach alpha coefficient value of the cyberloafing was .0878. Its sub-dimension was determined respectively sharing, shopping, accessing online content, real time updating, and gaming/gambling. As it can be seen from Table 3 the scale has high reliability based on the value ranges of the alpha coefficients related to both the general and sub-dimensions (Kalaycı 2010).

Table 4: Mean scores of nomophobia and cyberloafing.

Variables

 

N

Min.

Max.

X̄

𝜎

 

Nomophobia

300

1.40

4.40

3.177

0.585

Losing Connectedness

300

1.00

5.00

3.076

1.307

Not being able to communicate

300

1.00

5.00

3.660

0.997

Not giving up convenience

300

1.00

5.00

2.371

0.863

Not being able to access information

300

1.00

5.00

3.589

1.060

Cyberloafing

300

1.63

4.60

3.056

0.602

Sharing

300

1.00

5.00

2.958

1.295

Shopping

300

1.43

5.00

2.623

1.078

Accessing online content

300

1.00

5.00

3.492

1.117

Real time updating

300

1.00

5.00

3.148

0.862

Gaming/gambling

300

1.00

5.00

3.374

0.959








Source: Own elaboration.

Table 4 shows the mean scores of nomophobia and cyberloafing. Considering the mean scores related to nomophobia and cyberloafing; it could be said that the nomophobic levels (X̄=3.17) and cyberloafing levels (X̄=3.056) of the participants in the research are at a moderate level. When the sub-dimensions were examined, it was seen that the participants experience uneasiness when they could not being able to communicate (X̄=3.66) and could not being able to access information (X̄=3.58). When evaluated in terms of cyberloafing, it could be said that participants loaf during accessing online content (X̄=3.49). Generally, nomophobia and cyberloafing were found to be rare in other sub-dimensions.

4.      RESULTS

4.1.  The Descriptive Statistics of Nomophobia

It was examined whether the nomophobia levels of the participants showed a significant difference according to their demographic characteristics. In this context, Table 5 shows the Independent Sample T-test results regarding whether the gender of the employees affects the nomophobia levels. 

Table 5: T-test analysis results of employees' nomophobia levels according to gender.

 

Gender

N

X̄

𝜎

T

P

Nomophobia

Female

133

3.12

0.54

-1.333

.184

 

Male

167

3.21

0.61

Losing Connectedness

Female

133

2.89

1.24

-2.200

.029*

 

Male

167

3.22

1.34

Not being able to communicate

Female

133

3.69

1.00

0.510

.610

 

Male 

167

3.63

0.99

Not giving up convenience

Female

133

2.38

0.85

0.163

.871

 

Male

167

2.36

0.87

Not being able to access information

Female

133

3.50

1.05

-1.191

.235

 

Male

167

3.65

1.06

*p<.05

Source: Own elaboration.

According to Table 5, it was determined that the level of nomophobia and the sub-dimensions of not being able to communicate, not giving up convenience and not being able to access information did not differ significantly according to gender. It was found that there was a significant difference between the discomfort experienced by men and women about losing connectedness (t=-2.200, p=0.029). Accordingly, it can be said that men experience more restlessness when they lose their online connection than women. In other studies gender differences varies, women's nomophobia levels were higher (Kaviani et al., 2020; İşçitürk 2020; Aguilera-Manrique et al., 2018), while in others no difference was found (Kaur et al., 2021; Argumosa-Villar et al., 2017; Dixit et al., 2010).

Table 6: Anova results of employees' nomophobia levels according to age.

 

Age

N

X̄

𝜎

F

p

Tukey

Nomophobia

 ≤ 25

85

3.20

0.56

0.895

.467

-

 

26 – 35

110

3.21

0.60

 

36 – 45

55

3.15

0.55

 

46 – 55

42

3.10

0.61

 

56 ≥  

8

2.87

0.45

Losing Connectedness

 ≤ 25

85

3.29

1.20

1.629

.167

-

 

26 – 35

110

3.14

1.33

 

36 – 45

55

2.86

1.23

 

46 – 55

42

2.84

1.42

 

56 ≥  

8

2.60

1.59

Not being able to communicate

 ≤ 25

85

3.65

0.97

0.392

.815

-

 

26 – 35

110

3.65

1.00

 

36 – 45

55

3.76

1.09

 

46 – 55

42

3.59

0.91

 

56 ≥  

8

3.35

1.02

Not giving up convenience

 ≤ 25

85

2.30

0.81

0.295

.881

-

 

26 – 35

110

2.40

0.91

 

36 – 45

55

2.44

0.84

 

46 – 55

42

2.32

0.82

 

56 ≥  

8

2.40

1.02

Not being able to access information

 ≤ 25

85

3.55

1.15

0.825

.510

-

 

26 – 35

110

3.67

0.98

 

36 – 45

55

3.48

1.17

 

46 – 55

42

3.66

0.86

 

56 ≥  

8

3.09

1.16

*p<.05

Source: Own elaboration.

According to Table 6, it was determined that the nomophobic levels and sub-dimensions of the participants did not differ significantly by age (p>.05). Therefore, it can be said that the level of nomophobia in all dimensions is close to each other. Consistent with our study, some authors claim that they could not find any difference in terms of age, and that nomophobia can be developed at any age (Aguilera-Manrique et al., 2018). However, some authors found that the level of nomophobia differs according to age (Kaviani et al., 2020; Arman and Şahin Ören 2021; İşçitürk 2020).

Table 7: Comparison of Nomophobia Level by Employees' Non-work Internet Usage Periods.

                                                 Internet usage time 

N

X̄

𝜎

F

P

Tukey

Nomophobia

never

27

3.21

0.46

1.503

.201

-

 

< 1h

193

3.22

0.58

 

1-3h

68

3.02

0.61

 

4-6h

10

3.25

0.53

 

˃ 7h

2

3.02

0.88

Losing Connectedness

never

27

2.88

1.42

0.573

.683

-

 

< 1h

193

3.13

1.29

 

1-3h

68

2.94

1.30

 

4-6h

10

3.42

1.27

 

˃ 7h

2

3.20

2.54

Not being able to communicate

never

27

3.90

0.76

1.976

.098

-

 

< 1h

193

3.71

0.97

 

1-3h

68

3.39

1.13

 

4-6h

10

3.81

0.58

 

˃ 7h

2

3.08

1.29

Not giving up convenience

never

27

2.10

0.74

1.861

.117

-

 

< 1h

193

2.46

0.87

 

1-3h

68

2.21

0.82

 

4-6h

10

2.46

1.04

 

˃ 7h

2

2.00

0.56

Not being able to access information

never

27

4.00

0.77

1.508

.200

-

 

< 1h

193

3.54

1.13

 

1-3h

68

3.58

0.95

 

4-6h

10

3.20

0.89

 

˃ 7h

2

4.00

0.00

*p<.05

Source: Own elaboration.

Table 7 shows that there was no significant difference in the nomophobic levels of the participants according to their internet usage during working hours (p>.05). Contrary to this result, in some studies, it was observed that the level of nomophobia increased as the time spent by the participants on the Internet increased (İşçitürk, 2020). However, in a different study, it was noticed that the level of nomophobia increased in groups who used internet more than 3 hours related non work purposes (Kaviani et al., 2020; Arman and Şahin Ören 2021). Based on the above results related to nomophobia, the H2 hypothesis was partially accepted.

4.2.  The Descriptive Statistics of Cyberloafing

An independent sample t-test was used to determine whether the level of cyberloafing of employees was affected by their gender. According to Table 8, it is seen that there is a significant difference between the cyberloafing levels of females and males (t=-4.342, p=0.000). When the arithmetic averages are evaluated, it was found that men cyberloaf more than females. It has been determined that there is a gender difference in internet sharing (t=-2.625, p=0.009) and content access (t=-4.688, p=0.000) and that men share and shop more than women. These findings are consistent with results of prior studies which found that men were more likely to cyberloaf compared to women (Serttaş & Şimşek 2017; Baturay and Toker 2015; Lim and Chen 2012). According to TUIK 2020 data, the rate of internet use by gender was determined as 84.7% for men and 73.3% for women. Compared to previous years, it is seen that these rates are close to each other. However, the fact that males are more dominant in cyberloafing may be due to the hierarchical and dependent structure of Turkish culture (Hofstede et. al 2010).

Table 8: T-test analysis results of employees' cyberloafing levels according to gender.

 

Gender

N

X̄

𝜎

t

p

Cyberloafing

Female

133

2.89

0.50

-4.342

.000*

 

Male

167

3.18

0.64

Sharing

Female

133

2.74

1.19

-2.625

.009*

 

Male

167

3.13

1.34

Shopping

Female

133

2.30

0.88

-4.688

.000*

 

Male

167

2.87

1.15

Accessing online content

Female

133

3.41

1.13

-1.106

.270

 

Male

167

3.55

1.10

Real time updating

Female

133

3.08

0.88

-1.210

.227

 

Male

167

3.20

0.84

Gaming/gambling

Female

133

3.36

0.92

-0.092

.926

 

Male

167

3.37

0.98

*p<.05

Source: Own elaboration.

In Table 9 one way Anova results of employees' cyberloafing levels according to age variable are shown. In general, it is seen that the level of cyberloafing differs significantly in terms of age (F=3.242, p=0.013). According to Tukey results, it can be said that employees aged 25 and under are more likely to procrastinate in the virtual environment than others. In addition, it has been determined that people aged 25-36 tend to cyberloaf in the virtual environment compared to the people in the higher group. Significant differences were found in shopping (F=2.601, p=0.036) and accessing online content (F=2.626, p=0.035) in the study, but no difference was found in sharing, real time updating and gaming/gambling. In line with our study several authors claim that they found differences regarding age such as young people tend to engage in more cyberloafing (Arman and Şahin Ören 2021; Çınar and Karcıoğlu 2015; Ugrin et al., 2007).

Table 9: Anova results of employees' cyberloafing levels according to age.

 

Age

N

X̄

𝜎

F

p

Tukey

Cyberloafing

 ≤ 25

85

3.21

0.56

3.242

.013*

1>2,3

1>4,5

2>3,4,5

 

26 – 35

110

3.06

0.63

 

36 – 45

55

2.93

0.56

 

46 – 55

42

2.93

0.59

 

56 ≥  

8

2.70

0.38

Sharing

 ≤ 25

85

3.14

1.17

1.649

.162

-

 

26 – 35

110

3.04

1.36

 

36 – 45

55

2.76

1.18

 

46 – 55

42

2.71

1.37

 

56 ≥  

8

2.40

1.62

Shopping

 ≤ 25

85

2.89

1.18

2.601

.036*

1>2,3

1>4,5

2,3>5

 

26 – 35

110

2.55

1.05

 

36 – 45

55

2.56

1.01

 

46 – 55

42

2.44

0.99

 

56 ≥  

8

1.96

0.25

Accessing online content

 ≤ 25

85

3.80

0.98

2.626

.035*

1>3

 

26 – 35

110

3.38

1.11

 

36 – 45

55

3.26

1.22

 

46 – 55

42

3.42

1.13

 

56 ≥  

8

3.65

1.06

Real time updating

 ≤ 25

85

3.13

0.92

1.036

.389

-

 

26 – 35

110

3.20

0.83

 

36 – 45

55

3.12

0.79

 

46 – 55

42

3.15

0.79

 

56 ≥  

8

2.57

1.24

Gaming/gambling

 ≤ 25

85

3.30

0.95

0.307

.873

-

 

26 – 35

110

3.41

0.99

 

36 – 45

55

3.34

0.89

 

46 – 55

42

3.39

1.02

 

56 ≥  

8

3.62

0.59

*p<.05

Source: Own elaboration.

In Table 10 Anova results of employees' cyberloafing levels according to internet usage time are shown. The level of cyberloafing differs significantly according to the time spent on the internet during work hours (F=3.321, p=.011). Tukey results show that those who stay on the Internet for less than 1 hour are more likely to cyberloaf than those who stay on the Internet for 1-3 hours. According to the sub-dimensions namely sharing, real time updating and gaming/gambling, no significant difference was found. However, it has been determined that there was a significant difference in shopping (F=7.345, p=.000) and content access (F=3.512, p=.008) dimensions according to the length of time spent on the Internet. Accordingly, it has been determined that those who say they do not use the internet during the working period do more online shopping than those who stay between 1-3 hours and 4-6 hours. In addition, it was determined that those who stay on the Internet for less than 1 hour do more online shopping than those who stay on the Internet for 1-3 hours. Those who say they never surf the internet at work and those who say they surf for less than 1 hour have access to more virtual content than those who browse for 1-3 hours. In a study conducted with undergraduate students, the most cyberloafing activity was found to be accessing online content, while shopping was the least cyberloafing behavior (Masadeh 2021). In another study examining the cyberloafing activities of the employees in the front office of the accommodation establishments, no significant difference was found between the cyberloafing and the duration of stay on the internet (Serttaş and Şimşek 2017). However, unlike our study, some studies have shown that those who used the Internet everyday engage in more cyberloafing when compared to those who used the Internet less frequently (Baturay and Toker 2015). Based on the above results related to cyberloafing, the H3 hypothesis was partially accepted.

Table 10: Comparison of Cyberloafing Level by Employees' Non-work Internet.

                                           Internet usage time  

N

X̄

𝜎

F

p

Tukey

Cyberloafing

Never

27

3.16

0.59

3.321

.011*

2>3

 

< 1h

193

3.12

0.61

 

1-3h

68

2.85

0.55

 

4-6h

10

2.82

0.32

 

˃ 7h

2

2.71

0.30

Sharing

Never

27

2.73

1.43

0.407

.803

 

 

< 1h

193

3.00

1.28

 

1-3h

68

2.87

1.27

 

4-6h

10

3.16

1.34

 

˃ 7h

2

3.11

2.35

Shopping

Never

27

2.95

1.25

7.345

.000*

1>3,4

2>3

 

< 1h

193

2.79

1.13

 

1-3h

68

2.14

0.66

 

4-6h

10

1.88

0.21

 

˃ 7h

2

1.64

0.30

Accessing online content

Never

27

3.97

0.91

3.512

.008*

1>3

2>3

 

< 1h

193

3.56

1.08

 

1-3h

68

3.12

1.17

 

4-6h

10

3.26

1.26

 

˃ 7h

2

3.30

1.55

Real time updating

Never

27

3.43

0.63

2.157

.074

-

 

< 1h

193

3.17

0.86

 

1-3h

68

3.02

0.85

 

4-6h

10

2.62

1.10

 

˃ 7h

2

3.30

0.98

Gaming/gambling

Never

27

3.15

0.82

1.567

.183

-

 

< 1h

193

3.35

0.97

 

1-3h

68

3.54

0.94

 

4-6h

10

3.37

1.06

 

˃ 7h

2

2.25

0.35

*p<.05

Source: Own elaboration.

4.3.  The Relationship Between Nomophobia and Cyberloafing

According to Table 11 there is a positive and moderate relationship between nomophobia, which is the independent variable, and cyberloafing, which is the dependent variable (r=.586, p<.01). There is a moderate (r=.630, p<.01) relationship between nomophobia and cyberloafing's sub-dimension sharing, a weak relationship between shopping dimension (r=.396, p<.01), and a weak (r=.265, p<.01) relationship between updating status. However, there was a very weak and negative relationship between gaming/gambling and nomophobia (r=-.197, p<.01).

Table 11: Findings Regarding the Relationship Between Nomophobia and Cyberloafing.

 

Nomophobia

Losing connectedness

not being able to communicate

not giving up convenience

not being able to access information

Cyberloafing

.586**

.616**

.108

.228**

.284**

Sharing

.630**

.956**

.238**

.037

-.110

Shopping

.396**

.217**

.030

.318**

.393**

Accessing content

-.022

.101

-.163**

.158**

.166**

Updating status

.265**

.042

.075

.130*

.558**

Gaming/gambling

-.197**

-.235**

-.119*

.039

.028

**p<.01, *p<.05

Source: Own elaboration.

Losing connectness and cyberloafing were found to be moderately positively correlated (r=.616, p<.01). The losing connectedness and sharing were found to be strongly correlated (r=.956, p<.01). It can be thought that employees engage in sharing behavior with the fear of losing connectedness. There was a very weak (r=.217, p<.01) relationship between losing connectedness and shopping, while a very weak and negative relationship was found between losing connectedness and gaming/gambling dimension (r=-.235, p<.01).

A very weak correlation was found between not being able to communicate and sharing (r=.238, p<.01). In addition, it was determined that there was a very weak and negative relationship between not being able to communicate and accessing content (r=-.163, p<.01) and gaming/gambling (r=-.119, p<.05).

A very weak correlation was found between "not giving up convenience" and "cyberloafing" (r=.228, p<.01). There was a weak relationship between "not giving up convenience" and shopping (r=.318, p<.01), while a very weak relationship was found between "accessing content" (r=.158, p<.01) and "updating status" (r=.130, p<.05).

There was a weak relationship between not being able to access information, which is the sub-dimension of nomophobia, and cyberloafing (r=.284, p<.01). Not being able to access information and shopping were found to be weakly correlated. It was determined that there was a very weak relationship between not being able to access information and accessing content (r=.166, p<.01), and a moderate relationship between not being able to access information and updating status (r=.558, p<.05). In a study conducted with undergraduate students, 57% of the participants believe that not being able to access information constantly on their smartphones and not being able to get information they want are critical nomophobia factors for them (Masadeh 2021). However, in another study, participants reported that they felt safe when they kept the phone with them all the time, making it easier for them to make a decision in a suspicious situation (Aguilera-Manrique et al., 2018).

4.4.  The Effect of Nomophobia on Cyberloafing

The results of the enter method regression analysis performed to determine the effect of nomophobia on cyberloafing are given in Table 12. The Enter method allows to enter and evaluate independent variables as a block in one step.

Table 12: The Effect of Nomophobia on Cyberloafing.

 

B

SE

Β

T

R2

adjusted R2

F

Variables

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Nomophobia

.604

.48

.586

12.499

.344

.342

156.228

*p<.05

Source: Own elaboration.

According to Table 12, the nomophobia level of the employees explains 34.2% of the variance. In other words, it was revealed that nomophobia affects cyberloafing by 34.2%. In addition, the model established for nomophobia and cyberloafing was found to be significant [F (37,363) = 156,228, p<.05]. Accordingly, it could be said that a one-unit increase in the participants' nomophobia levels affects the participants' cyberloafing levels by 0.604 units. According to this result, hypothesis 1 (H1) was supported. In a study conducted by Gözüm et al. (2020), the researchers found that nomophobia directly and positively affects cyberloafing in class and smartphone addiction. According to the results of another study in which 666 pre-service teachers participated, cyberloafing significantly predicted the level of nomophobia (İşçitürk 2020). In a study conducted with the employees in the food and beverage departments of tourism enterprises, it was determined that the dimensions of cyberloafing and nomophobia have a positive relationship with each other (Arman and Şahin Ören 2021). Therefore, according to the results of our research, it could be said that the effect of nomophobia on cyberloafing is consistent with the results of previous studies.

5.      CONCLUSION

Due to the dynamic nature of tourism, it is very important to follow and adopt the developing technology both to meet the changing demand structure and to facilitate the internal operation of the business. However, while technology has a positive effect on organizations in relation to travel, tourist flow and management, the employees’ internet access for non-work purposes during work time causes the development of cyberloafing and nomophobia behavior. In order to ensure the efficiency of businesses, it is important to work to eliminate or slow down the effect of cyberloafing and nomophobia. In line with this importance, the aim of the study is to investigate the effect of nomophobia on cyberloafing on employees in tourism enterprises.

The research sample consists of a total of 300 people working in 5-star hotel businesses operating in Antalya province Belek tourism region in the winter and spring terms of 2021. According to the results of the study, it was determined that the nomophobic and cyberloafing levels of the individuals participating in the research are moderate. When the sub-dimensions were examined, it was seen that the participants experience uneasiness when they could not be able to communicate (X̄=3.66) and could not being able to access information (X̄=3.58). From the point of view of cyberloafing, it could be said that participants loaf during accessing online content (X̄=3.49). Generally, nomophobia and cyberloafing were found to be rare in other sub-dimensions.

According to the T-test results related to nomophobia, the sub-dimensions of nomophobia such as not being able to communicate, not giving up convenience and not being able to access information did not differ significantly according to gender. A significant difference was found in the dimension of losing connectedness in a manner of the gender variable. Accordingly, men experience more restlessness than women when they lose their online connection. According to the age variable, no significant difference was found in the dimensions of losing connectedness and not being able to communicate. During working hours, there was no significant difference in the nomophobic levels of the participants according to the duration of internet use.

According to the T-test results related to cyberloafing, a significant difference was found in gender variable which is consistent with the literature. Accordingly, male tend to engage in cyberloafing more than females (Serttaş and Şimşek 2017; Baturay and Toker 2015; Lim and Chen 2012). When evaluated in terms of age, it has been seen that employees aged 25 and under are more cyberloafing than others. This finding supports the findings of several authors (Arman and Şahin-Ören 2021; Çınar and Karcıoğlu 2015; Ugrin et al., 2007) stated that the young people tend to engage in more cyberloafing. The level of cyberloafing differs significantly according to the time spent on the internet during work hours.

In this study it was aimed to investigate the relationship between nomophobia and cyberloafing of hotel employees. According to the results of the correlation analysis, a positive and moderate relationship was found between nomophobia and cyberloafing. In addition, it can be said that a one-unit increase in the nomophobia levels of the participants affects the cyberloafing levels of the participants by 0.604 units.

There are different approaches about cyber loafing and nomophobia in the literature. Situations such as the increase in the service quality of the employees working in accommodation establishments, work efficiency, and production losses can directly affect the employers. Therefore, providing various trainings or information to the employees during the recruitment processes or orientation phases can prevent the cyberloafing activities of the employees. Using employee monitoring software (Mills et al., 2001), such as applications at Marriott International, Starwood Hotels & Resorts, Budget Host International, and Diplomat Hotels, cyberloafing can be prevented. Tourism businesses can introduce various arrangements (such as taking more breaks) to their work routines to distract employees from nomophobia and cyberloafing behavior.

One of the limitations of this study is the types and frequency of phone use did not distinguish between read/answer/write/call frequency. It is important to distinguish between these behaviors because there are different behavioral predictors between initiating, monitoring, or responding to social interactive applications (Gauld et al., 2017). Since the data collection process coincided with the Covid 19 pandemic, the use of digital technologies more than usual may have affected the nomophobia level of the participants. Another limitation of the study is that the results can not be generalized since the convenience sampling technique was used.

In future studies, research on the effect of nomophobia on cyberloafing could be conducted with different sample groups with different sectors. For further research, mixed studies could be designed to obtain more in-depth data.

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AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS, FUNDING AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Author Contributions: 

Conceptualization: Yildiz, Sevcan; Yildiz, Raşit. Methodology: Yildiz, Sevcan; Yildiz, Raşit. Software: Yildiz, Raşit. Validation: Yildiz, Raşit. Formal Analysis: Yildiz, Sevcan; Yildiz, Raşit; Kutlu, Didem. Data Curation: Yildiz, Raşit. Writing-Preparation of the original draft: Kutlu, Didem. Writing-Revision and Editing: Kutlu, Didem. Supervision: Yildiz, Sevcan. Display: Yildiz, Sevcan; Kutlu, Didem; Yildiz, Raşit. All authors have read and accepted the published version of the manuscript: Yildiz, Sevcan; Kutlu, Didem; Yildiz, Raşit.

AUTHORS:

Sevcan Yildiz: 

Ass. Prof. Sevcan Yıldız is a lecturer at Vocational School of Social Sciences, Akdeniz University. Her main field of research is tourism and tourism marketing. In addition, her research interest is tourist behavior, tourism management and cultural tourism. She completed her doctorate in tourism and hotel management in Akdeniz University. In addition, she is licensed guide in Turkiye. 

Orcid ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2066-1941 

 

Didem Kutlu: 

Didem Kutlu is a lecturer at Vocational School of Social Sciences, Akdeniz University. Her main field is marketing and tourism marketing. Her research interest (according to publications) is destination image, tourism experience, electronic word of mouth, and travel agency studies. She completed her doctorate in business marketing in Karadeniz Technical University.

Orcid ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3354-5202 

ResearchGate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Didem-Kutlu-3

 

Raşit Yildiz: 

Raşit Yıldız is the secretary of Serik Business Faculty at Akdeniz University. He got his Master's degree from Akdeniz University of the Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Tourism Management. His main field is tourism management.

Orcid ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4433-9925 

ResearchGate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rasit-Yildiz/research

 

 

 

                               Vivat Academia. Revista de Comunicación. ISSN 1575-2844    1

 

1 Sevcan Yildiz: She is associate professor at Vocational School of Social Sciences, Akdeniz University. Her main field of research is tourism and tourism marketing. In addition, her research interest is tourist behavior, tourism management and cultural tourism.

[2] Didem Kutlu: She is assistant professor at Vocational School of Social Sciences, Akdeniz University. Her main field is marketing and tourism marketing. Her research interest (according to publications) is destination image, tourism experience, electronic word of mouth, and travel agency studies.

[3] Raşit Yıldız: He is the secretary of Serik Business Faculty at Akdeniz University. He got his Master's degree from Akdeniz University of the Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Tourism Management